The search included articles published between 2010 and 2025, using keywords: Parkinsons disease, -synuclein, dopaminergic degeneration, ferroptosis, deep brain stimulation, stem cell therapy, and AI in PD diagnosis. Results: The review highlights a multifactorial etiology involving -synuclein pathology, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, genetic mutations (SNCA, LRRK2, VPS35), environmental toxins, and gut dysbiosis
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When used separately or in combination, the NPs versions of these medications showed more beneficial effects than their traditional counterparts
Neurologic alterations due to respiratory virus infections
Studies on animal have demonstrated that the ethanolic extract, derived from leaves and flowers, can lower blood glucose levels and inhibit the formation of new metarterioles, crucial for preventing tumor growth (93)
Abbreviations PD: Parkinson's Disease SNpc: Substantia Nigra pars compacta DJ-1: Parkinson's Disease Protein DJ-1 PINK-1: PTEN Induced Kinase 1 LRRK2: Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 CNS: Central Nervous System SN: Substantia Nigra ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate MPTP: 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine SNCA: Synuclein Alpha (Alpha-Synuclein) VSP35: Vesicle-Specific Protein 35 CHCHD2: Coiled-Coil-Helix-Coiled-Coil-Helix Domain Containing 2 PLA2G: Phospholipase A2 Group ATP13A2: ATPase Type 13A2 FBX07 : F-Box Protein 7 GCTA: Genome-Wide Complex Trait Analysis GWAS: Genome-Wide Association Study GBA: Glucocerebrosidase (Gene) GTPase: Guanosine Triphosphatase DOPA: Dihydroxyphenylalanine SPECT: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography CT : Computed Tomography MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging PET: Positron Emission Tomography CoQ10: Coenzyme Q10 NDs: Neurodegenerative Diseases ALS: Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis ROS: Reactive Oxygen Species GPx : Glutathione Peroxidase TPx: Thioredoxin Peroxidase ETC: Electron Transport Chain ABL1: Abelson Murine Leukemia Viral Oncogene Homolog 1 c-ABL: Cellular Abelson Kinase ASOs: Antisense Oligonucleotides AmNA-ASO : Aminoalkyl-Nucleoside Antisense Oligonucleotide cAMP : Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate DA: Dopamine PC12: Pheochromocytoma Cells TH: Tyrosine Hydroxylase NCT: National Clinical Trial GTPase: Guanosine Triphosphatase DOPA: Dihydroxyphenylalanine SPECT : Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography Tg : Transgenic PEG: Polyethylene Glycol BBB: Blood-Brain Barrier GCase: Glucocerebrosidase PARIS: Parkinson's Disease Associated Factor BCF: Blood-Clotting Factor WGA: Wheat Germ Agglutinin NPs: Nanoparticles PAMAM: Polyamidoamine Dendrimers PPI: Protein-Protein Interaction BAX: Bcl-2-Associated X Protein BCL-2: B-cell Lymphoma 2 DLB: Dementia with Lewy bodies NRF2: Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 6-OHDA: 6-Hydroxydopamine GDNF: Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor BE-MC: Brain Endothelial-Microvascular Cells PEI: Polyethylenimine AAV: Adeno-Associated Virus siRNA: Small Interfering RNA RMT: Receptor-Mediated Transport SLNs -: Solid Lipid Nanoparticles GCTA -: Genome-Wide Complex Trait Analysis LMW : Light molecular weight PEI: Polyethylenimine MSC-Exo: Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes m6A: N6-methyladenosine MAPT: microtubule-associated protein tau GSK- : glycogen synthase kinase 3 FOXO1: forkhead box protein O1 Lf: lactoferrin PGC-1: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- coactivator 1 s-MARSA: sensitive magnetic nanoparticle-assisted rapid sandwich assay TNF-: Tumour Necrosis Factor- MNPs: magnetic nanoparticles IL-1: Interleukin-1 hNPCs: human neural precursor cells dtSN: dorsal tegmental substantia nigra VtSN: ventral tegmental substantia nigra Vta: ventral tegmental area ER: Endoplasmic reticulum EVs: Extracellular Vesicles (sEVs): small extracellular vesicles MSNPs: mesoporous silica nanoparticles AuNPs: Gold nanoparticles References Paccione N, Rahmani M, Barcia E, Negro S
