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Proc Natl Acad Sci USA

Vegetarians & Vegans Older adults People with pernicious anemia or GI absorption disorders (like Crohn's or celiac disease) Individuals after certain surgeries (such as gastric bypass) Pregnant women People on chronic metformin or proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) How much does a B12 shot typically cost

It can also help to prevent heart disease and improve cognitive function

Each missed dose represents a gap in the protocol that may reduce cumulative results

Severe neurological damage from prolonged deficiency can become permanent if not treated promptly which is why accurate and timely diagnosis matters more than choosing a particular supplement form

Practice restrictions: State medical boards may limit which practitioners can prescribe or administer peptides