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Exogenous Non-enzymatic Antioxidants Exogenous antioxidants need to be supplemented continuously through the diet since their synthetic pathways are usually present only in microbial or plant cells

Many flavonoids (including hesperetin from citrus, farrerol from rhododendron, and the flavones apigenin and luteolin from chamomile and celery) activate the Keap1Nrf2ARE pathway, which leads to upregulation of cytoprotective enzymes such as heme oxygenase-1 and superoxide dismutase (17, 26)

However, the route matters: plasma GHK-Cu circulates systemically, while topical GHK-Cu formulations face a bioavailability challenge penetrating the stratum corneum barrier to reach dermal fibroblasts

Ding WG, Gromada J

10.5114/pedm.2020.101806 44 DohertyM.NeilsonS.OSullivanJ.CarravallahL.JohnsonM.CullenW.et al (2022)

ENOS deficiency causes podocyte injury with mitochondrial abnormality